AIOU Exam preparation Theories of  Mass Communication- I  (5635)

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Course: Theories of  Mass Communication- I  (5635)

 Mass Communication Semester-III

Important Questions with Answers prepared by Faiza Gul, FRilmi Team (Errors and omissions acceptable) Disclaimer: All Questions and Answers are Based on self assessment and It is only Guess material.

Question.1  Define encoding. What are those in-built characteristics of languages which make encoding difficult in communications?

Encoding is the process of converting information or data into a specific format that is suitable for transmission, storage, or processing. It involves transforming the content or meaning of a message into a symbolic representation that can be understood by both the sender and the receiver.

In the context of communication, encoding refers to the conversion of thoughts, ideas, or intentions into a structured form that can be transmitted to another person or entity. This transformation allows the information to be effectively communicated and understood by the intended recipient.

For example, let’s consider a simple scenario of encoding in verbal communication:

Suppose you want to inform a friend that you will be attending a party tonight at 8 p.m. To encode this message, you may choose to use spoken language as the medium and encode the information in a structured format, such as forming a sentence like, “I will be attending the party tonight at 8 p.m.” In this case, you are converting your intention and the details of the event into words, which can be easily understood by your friend.

In this example, the encoding process involves translating your thoughts and plans into a linguistic form, organizing the message using grammar and syntax, and using appropriate vocabulary to convey the desired meaning. The encoding also takes into account the shared knowledge and cultural context between you and your friend, ensuring that the message is framed appropriately for effective communication.

It’s important to note that encoding can take various forms depending on the communication medium used. It can involve different modalities such as verbal, written, visual, or even nonverbal cues, and the specific encoding methods may vary accordingly.

Encoding refers to the process of converting information into a format suitable for transmission or storage. It involves transforming data or messages into a standardized representation that can be easily understood by both the sender and the receiver.

There are several inherent characteristics of languages that can make encoding difficult in communications. Some of these challenges include:

1. Ambiguity: Languages often contain words, phrases, or symbols that can have multiple meanings. This ambiguity can lead to confusion or misunderstandings during the encoding process. Different interpretations or contexts can affect how a message is understood by the receiver.
2. Cultural Differences: Languages are closely tied to cultural contexts. Certain expressions, idioms, or gestures may have specific meanings within a particular culture or community. When communicating across different cultures, these nuances can be easily misunderstood or lost in translation.
3. Lack of Shared Knowledge: Effective encoding requires the sender to assume a certain level of shared knowledge with the receiver. However, individuals may have different backgrounds, experiences, or levels of expertise, leading to differences in understanding and interpretation. It can be challenging to strike the right balance between providing enough context and avoiding unnecessary information.
4. Emotional and Nonverbal Elements: Language encompasses more than just words. It includes nonverbal cues, such as facial expressions, tone of voice, and body language, which can convey additional meaning. Encoding solely through written or spoken words may not fully capture these emotional or nonverbal aspects, potentially leading to misinterpretation or loss of intended meaning.
5. Technical Constraints: Communication channels and mediums may impose limitations on encoding. For example, written communication lacks the immediacy and richness of face-to-face interactions, making it harder to convey certain nuances. Additionally, technological factors like transmission errors, signal interference, or bandwidth limitations can introduce further complications in accurately encoding and transmitting information.

It’s important to be aware of these challenges and adapt communication strategies accordingly to ensure effective encoding and minimize misunderstandings.

Question.2  What is a model? What are the functions of a model? What are criteria for evaluation of a model? / Evaluate Lasswell’s model and Shramm model by using the criteria of evaluation of a model / elements of model in which represent  the process of mass communication.

In communication, a model refers to a simplified representation or framework that helps explain and understand the process of communication. It provides a theoretical structure that identifies key elements and their relationships, enabling us to analyze and interpret how communication occurs.

Models of communication serve several functions, including:

1. Describing the Communication Process: Models help describe the various components and stages involved in the communication process, allowing us to visualize how messages are created, transmitted, and received. They provide a roadmap for understanding the sequence of events and interactions in communication.
2. Analyzing Communication Dynamics: Models offer a framework for analyzing the dynamics of communication, including the roles and interactions of participants, the flow of information, and the factors that influence understanding and interpretation. They allow us to examine the complexities and variables involved in effective communication.
3. Identifying Communication Elements: Models help identify the essential elements of communication, such as the sender, receiver, message, medium, feedback, and noise. By delineating these elements, models highlight their roles and relationships, aiding in the examination of how they contribute to successful communication.
4. Predicting Communication Outcomes: Models can provide insights into the potential outcomes or effects of communication. They help us understand how different factors, such as the choice of words, nonverbal cues, or communication channels, may influence the reception and interpretation of messages. By considering these factors, models allow us to make predictions about the impact of communication on individuals or groups.
5. Guiding Communication Practice: Models serve as practical guides for improving communication skills. They offer principles and guidelines for effective encoding and decoding of messages, facilitating clearer expression and understanding. By understanding the functions and components of models, individuals can apply them to enhance their communication competence.

An example of a communication model is the Shannon-Weaver model, also known as the linear model of communication. It illustrates communication as a linear process consisting of a sender who encodes a message, which is transmitted through a channel to a receiver who decodes the message. The model includes the concepts of noise (interference) and feedback to account for potential disruptions and the receiver’s response.

By using this model, one can analyze how factors like encoding, decoding, noise, and feedback influence the successful transmission and interpretation of messages. It helps identify potential barriers and aids in improving the clarity and effectiveness of communication interactions.

Lasswell’s and Schramm’s Model:

1. Accuracy: In this model emphasizes the reciprocal nature of communication, considering both the sender and receiver as active participants. It recognizes the exchange of messages and feedback, providing a more accurate representation of communication dynamics.
2. Simplicity: In this model is relatively simple, depicting communication as a circular process of encoding, decoding, and feedback. It is accessible and can be easily understood by individuals with various levels of communication knowledge.
3. Predictive Power: In this model offers a better predictive power compared to Lasswell’s model. By highlighting the importance of feedback, it acknowledges that communication is an ongoing and interactive process, allowing for more accurate predictions regarding message interpretation and effectiveness.
4. Generalizability: In this model is generalizable and applicable to various communication contexts. It recognizes the importance of context, culture, and individual differences, allowing for a broader understanding of communication dynamics.
5. Parsimony: In this model adheres to the principle of parsimony by focusing on the key components of communication: encoding, decoding, and feedback. It avoids unnecessary complexity while providing a comprehensive framework.
6. Coherence: In this model demonstrates coherence by illustrating the continuous and iterative nature of communication. It recognizes the interdependence and influence between the sender and receiver, enhancing the coherence of the model.
7. Practicality: In this model is practical in its emphasis on the reciprocal nature of communication. It provides insights into the importance of feedback and the role of interpretation in effective communication. This practicality allows individuals to enhance their communication skills and adapt their messages based on feedback received.

Overall, while Lasswell’s model offers simplicity and a basic understanding of communication elements, it falls short in accuracy and predictive power. On the other hand, Schramm’s model provides a more accurate and practical representation of communication by considering the reciprocal nature and emphasizing feedback. It demonstrates better general. It’s important to note that the specific criteria for evaluating a model can vary depending on the context, purpose, and scope of the model. The criteria above provide a general framework for assessing models, but additional factors may be considered based on the specific requirements of the evaluation.

Question.3  What does readability research deal with? What is the importance of readability research? Discuss the history of reliability measurement.                                                                                                

Readability research primarily deals with the study of how easily written text can be understood and comprehended by readers. It focuses on analyzing various factors that influence the readability of written material, such as vocabulary, sentence structure, complexity, and organization. The goal of readability research is to develop methods, guidelines, and tools to assess and improve the readability of written texts, ensuring they are accessible and understandable to the intended audience.

The importance of readability research lies in its ability to enhance communication effectiveness. Clear and readable content enables readers to process information more easily, leading to improved comprehension, retention, and engagement. Readability research is particularly valuable in educational settings, where it helps design instructional materials and textbooks that align with students’ reading abilities and promote effective learning.

Moreover, readability research is relevant in various professional fields, such as journalism, technical writing, legal documents, healthcare communication, and online content creation. By applying readability principles, writers and communicators can make their content more accessible to diverse audiences, including those with lower literacy levels, second language learners, or individuals with cognitive impairments.

History of readability measurement:

The history of readability measurement dates back to the early 20th century when researchers and educators began recognizing the need for assessing and improving the readability of educational materials. Notable milestones in the history of readability measurement include:

1. Rudolf Flesch (1948): Flesch developed the Flesch Reading Ease formula and the Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level formula. These formulas provided quantitative measures of readability based on the average number of syllables and words per sentence.
2. Dale-Chall Readability Formula (1949): Edgar Dale and Jeanne Chall developed a formula that considered both word difficulty and sentence length to determine the readability of texts. This formula introduced a list of familiar words to gauge text comprehension.
3. Gunning Fog Index (1952): Robert Gunning introduced the Gunning Fog Index, which measured readability based on sentence length and the percentage of complex words in a text.
4. SMOG Formula (1969): McLaughlin introduced the Simple Measure of Gobbledygook (SMOG) formula, which assessed readability based on the number of polysyllabic words in a sample passage.
5. The Flesch-Kincaid Readability Tests (1975): This test extended Flesch’s original formulas to include grade level scores, making them widely used in educational contexts.

Since then, readability measurement has evolved with advancements in linguistic analysis, corpus linguistics, and computational methods. Today, readability formulas and algorithms often incorporate a combination of syntactic, semantic, and statistical features to provide more accurate assessments of text complexity and readability levels. Additionally, readability tools and software have been developed to automate the measurement process, making it more accessible and efficient for writers, educators, and content creators.

An example of readability research in the context of media is a study that aims to assess the readability of news articles published by different media outlets. This type of research seeks to understand the readability levels of news content and how it may impact audience comprehension and engagement.

To conduct this study, researchers would collect a sample of news articles from various media sources, representing a range of genres (e.g., politics, science, entertainment). The articles could be obtained from online news websites, newspapers, or other media platforms.

Using readability formulas or tools, such as the Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level formula or the Gunning Fog Index, the researchers would analyze the text complexity and readability of the news articles. These formulas typically consider factors such as sentence length, word difficulty, and grammatical complexity to provide a readability score or grade level estimation.

By evaluating the readability of the news articles, researchers can assess whether the content is accessible and understandable for the general audience. The findings can reveal if the articles are written at a level that aligns with the average reading abilities of the target readership. The researchers can identify whether the articles contain complex language or jargon that may hinder comprehension or engagement.

Based on the results, recommendations can be made to improve the readability of news articles. This might involve simplifying sentence structures, avoiding technical jargon, or providing additional explanations for complex concepts. The aim would be to ensure that news articles are readable and engaging for a wide range of readers, including those with varying levels of literacy or background knowledge.

The significance of this readability research in media is to promote effective communication and enhance audience understanding of news content. Readable news articles can facilitate comprehension, increase reader engagement, and contribute to a well-informed society. Moreover, this research can guide media organizations in producing content that is accessible to diverse audiences and fosters wider public participation in the democratic process.

Overall, readability research and measurement have played a crucial role in promoting clear and effective communication, enabling the development of readable materials that cater to diverse readerships and improve overall comprehension.

Question.4  Discuss dissonance theory in the context of information seeking and avoidance both in interpersonal communication and mass communication.

Dissonance theory, also known as cognitive dissonance theory, explains the psychological discomfort individuals experience when they hold conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or engage in behavior that contradicts their values or self-perception. In the context of information seeking and avoidance, dissonance theory helps us understand how individuals navigate the desire for information and the avoidance of information that may challenge their existing beliefs or attitudes. This theory applies to both interpersonal communication and mass communication scenarios.

In Interpersonal Communication:

1. Information Seeking: When individuals encounter cognitive dissonance, they may be motivated to seek information that aligns with their existing beliefs or attitudes. This can lead to selective exposure, where individuals actively seek out information that confirms their preconceived notions and avoid information that challenges their beliefs. For example, someone with strong political convictions may selectively seek out news sources or engage in conversations that support their existing political ideology.
2. Information Avoidance: Conversely, individuals may engage in information avoidance to reduce dissonance. They may actively avoid or ignore information that contradicts their beliefs or challenges their self-perception. This can manifest in behaviors such as avoiding discussions with individuals who hold opposing views or deliberately steering clear of news articles or sources that present alternative perspectives.

In Mass Communication:

1. Information Seeking: In the context of mass communication, individuals may actively seek out media content that reinforces their existing beliefs or attitudes. They may choose to consume news outlets or media sources that align with their worldview, leading to echo chambers or filter bubbles. This selective exposure to information helps reduce cognitive dissonance by reinforcing preexisting beliefs and minimizing exposure to dissenting viewpoints.
2. Information Avoidance: Individuals may also engage in information avoidance in mass communication settings. They may employ strategies such as selective exposure, where they avoid news stories or media content that challenges their beliefs or causes cognitive dissonance. This can lead to a limited exposure to diverse perspectives and a reinforcement of existing beliefs, ultimately reducing dissonance.

It’s important to note that dissonance theory also acknowledges that individuals may actively seek out information that challenges their beliefs or attitudes in certain situations. This is known as the dissonance arousal hypothesis, where individuals may deliberately expose themselves to conflicting information to reduce cognitive dissonance and achieve a more balanced perspective.

Overall, dissonance theory provides insights into how individuals navigate information seeking and avoidance in both interpersonal and mass communication. It helps explain the motivations behind selective exposure and information avoidance, shedding light on how individuals manage conflicting information to maintain cognitive consistency and reduce discomfort.

Question.5  What is persuasion? How attitude can be changed?/ discuss the role of one sided and two sided messages inpersuasion.

Persuasion refers to the process of influencing or changing someone’s attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors through communication and appeals. It involves presenting arguments, evidence, or appeals in a persuasive manner to motivate individuals to adopt a particular viewpoint, attitude, or take specific actions.

Attitudes can be changed through various persuasive techniques and strategies. Here are some common approaches:

1. Central Route: This approach involves presenting logical arguments, evidence, and facts to appeal to an individual’s rational thinking and decision-making. It focuses on providing strong, credible information that directly addresses the relevant issues. Changing attitudes through the central route requires a careful presentation of facts, expertise, and clear reasoning.

Example in a Media Context: A news article presents a comprehensive analysis of scientific studies, expert opinions, and statistical data to convince readers about the urgency and severity of climate change. By providing evidence-based arguments, the article aims to change readers’ attitudes and motivate them to take environmental actions.

• Peripheral Route: This approach relies on peripheral cues, such as emotional appeals, aesthetics, social influences, or credibility of the source, rather than focusing on the substantive content. It seeks to evoke emotional responses, create positive associations, or leverage social norms to influence attitudes.

Example in a Media Context: An advertisement for a luxury car showcases images of a glamorous lifestyle, associating the car with success, prestige, and social status. The advertisement appeals to individuals’ desire for status and admiration, aiming to change their attitudes towards the brand and motivate them to purchase the car.

• Social Proof: This technique relies on the principle of social influence, suggesting that individuals are more likely to adopt attitudes or behaviors if they perceive others around them engaging in the same behavior or holding the same attitude. It utilizes testimonials, endorsements, or references to influential individuals or groups to influence attitudes.

Example in a Media Context: A social media influencer posts a review or endorsement of a particular skincare product, highlighting its effectiveness and benefits. By leveraging the influencer’s credibility and popularity, the endorsement aims to change followers’ attitudes and persuade them to try the product.

• Fear Appeals: This technique involves evoking fear or anxiety in individuals by highlighting potential negative consequences or risks associated with maintaining their current attitudes or behaviors. It aims to motivate attitude change by emphasizing the need for preventive actions or adopting alternative attitudes.

Example in a Media Context: A public service announcement about the dangers of texting while driving features realistic and graphic depictions of car accidents caused by distracted driving. The goal is to evoke fear and highlight the potential consequences, persuading viewers to change their attitudes and behaviors related to distracted driving.

It’s important to note that the effectiveness of persuasion techniques can vary depending on individual differences, context, and the credibility of the source. Additionally, ethical considerations should be taken into account when using persuasive techniques, ensuring transparency, accuracy, and respect for the audience’s autonomy.

The role of one sided and two sided messages in persuasion.

One-sided and two-sided messages are persuasive communication strategies that differ in their approach to presenting information or arguments. Each type has its own advantages and is effective in specific situations.

1. One-Sided Messages: A one-sided message presents only the speaker’s or sender’s perspective, focusing solely on supporting arguments or positive attributes of a product, idea, or position. It does not acknowledge or address opposing viewpoints or counterarguments. One-sided messages are generally effective when the audience is already supportive or receptive to the message, or when there is little or no opposition.

Benefits of One-Sided Messages:

• Reinforcement: One-sided messages are useful for reinforcing existing attitudes, beliefs, or opinions. They provide affirmation and support for individuals who are already aligned with the speaker’s position.
• Simplicity: One-sided messages tend to be straightforward and easier to process, as they present a single perspective without introducing conflicting information.
• Time and Resource Efficiency: When there is limited time or resources available, delivering a one-sided message can be more efficient, as it requires less effort to prepare and present information.

Example: An advertisement promoting a brand of organic food focuses on the health benefits, sustainable production methods, and high-quality ingredients of their products. The advertisement appeals to consumers who are already interested in organic and healthy food options, reinforcing their positive attitudes towards the brand.

• Two-Sided Messages: In contrast, a two-sided message acknowledges and addresses opposing viewpoints or counterarguments. It presents both the pros and cons of a product, idea, or position, providing a balanced perspective. Two-sided messages are effective when the audience is aware of or likely to encounter opposing arguments, has a higher level of education or involvement in the topic, or when there is a need to address potential objections.

Benefits of Two-Sided Messages:

• Credibility: By acknowledging opposing viewpoints or counterarguments, two-sided messages can enhance the speaker’s or sender’s credibility. It demonstrates fairness, transparency, and a willingness to engage with different perspectives.
• Counter-arguing: Two-sided messages allow the speaker or sender to anticipate and address potential objections or criticisms, increasing the persuasiveness of the overall message.
• Persuasive Effectiveness: Research suggests that two-sided messages can be more persuasive than one-sided messages in certain contexts, especially when the audience is initially opposed to the message. It creates a sense of openness and consideration of alternative viewpoints, increasing the likelihood of attitude change.

Example: A public service announcement about the dangers of smoking cigarettes presents both the immediate gratification and long-term health risks associated with smoking. By acknowledging the short-term pleasure but emphasizing the significant health consequences, the message aims to persuade smokers to consider quitting.

It’s important to note that the effectiveness of one-sided or two-sided messages depends on various factors, including audience characteristics, prior knowledge, motivation, and the specific context of the persuasive communication. Both strategies have their merits and can be utilized strategically based on the specific goals and audience dynamics in a given persuasive situation.